Despite its current forbiddance, having intimate relationships is essential for achieving a sustainable presence in space for long durations of time. This paper explores the role of intimacy in long-duration spaceflight to develop a model of how to instill an appropriate level of healthy intimate relations among crewmembers. A thorough summarization is presented using the available literature regarding what intimacy is, the history and current status of crew selection methods and procedures concerning intimacy, and the role of organizational factors on crew intimacy, operational effectiveness, and flight safety. There is also an exploration into the impact of intimacy on individual and group performance while on an extended space flight. The results of this study illustrate how intimacy is a critical human need that can and should be fostered between crewmembers for long-duration spaceflight; however, several complications and limitations currently exist where further research and developments are needed. This includes the physiological needs and behavioral health of men and women, the addition of technology specifically used for promoting intimate interactions, and what all this looks like for an average and untrained group of individuals.
Keywords: Intimacy, Intimate Relations, Long-Duration Spaceflight, Crewmembers
The Role of Intimacy in Long-Duration Spaceflight
No matter the distance or duration, space travel is an extremely risky enterprise littered with harsh environmental conditions that greatly influence the physiological and psychological wellbeing of spacefarers. Although crucial to addressing fundamental questions about the human species place in the universe and achieving sustained colonization, the organizational and psychosocial aspects of long-duration multi-national space flights remain largely unanswered, with the existing body of literature being relatively limited. As Rodin (2020) notes, researchers and psychologists have been primarily concerned with astronaut’s individual cognition and the micro-level in-flight social interactions regarding behavioral health and productivity. There has also been much investigation and analysis into the environmental and psychological risk factors, as well as on the creation of effective techniques capable of optimizing the crew member’s work performance. Despite this insight, there is much that is still missing throughout the literature. The role of intimacy in long-duration spaceflight, a topic that is absent from most inquiries and experimentations regarding space travel, is crucial for the sustained wellbeing of these explorers.
The Concept of Intimacy
When referring to intimacy and intimate interactions, there are often the thoughts of romantic hand-holding, kissing, and emotional disclosure among two or more people that are interested in forming, building or maintaining a relationship (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017). In this context, individuals both seek and reciprocate intimacy to achieve their goal of relationship closeness, shared understanding, and self-disclosure, which helps the relationship progress, increasing investment, commitment, and satisfaction (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017). As Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, and Gray (2017) described further, relationships higher in romantic intimacy experience greater physical and psychological benefits for the interactants, including passion, sexual satisfaction, and better psychosocial adjustment. This type of intimacy, in short, refers to a process of interaction in which social partners share personal and private thoughts and feelings to gain closeness to the individual(s), resulting in them feeling understood, appreciated, and cared for by each other.
Another common type of intimacy is interactions that are imposed, where someone places unanticipated, unwarranted, or undesired intimacy onto a recipient which can include both sexual violations and more mundane situations like being stared at by a stranger or being crowded in a small subway car or elevator (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017). In this context, the intimacy is not instrumental and serves no goal, which leaves the recipients wishing to escape the situations, with the dominant response being compensation and avoidance behaviors such as gaining spatial distance, changing body orientations, or eye contact to diminish the host of negative consequences for the recipient (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017).
Although intimacy is often motivated by romantic feelings and tied to emotional connection, it can sometimes be functional-oriented, where the goals of these interactions are nonrelational. For example, the recipients of fully-body pat-downs by an airport security agent are not seeking love but to catch their flight, individual’s receiving medical procedures by a physician are not looking for an emotional connection but to stay as healthy as possible, and someone disclosing their thoughts and emotions to a therapist is seeking the nonrelational goal of enhancing their mental health (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017). Like Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, and Gray (2017) describe, functional intimacy involves goal-directed interactions between strangers which creates a unique tension because the recipients want the instrumental outcomes of intimacy without intrinsically desiring intimacy itself. This makes functional intimacy much different than prior types of intimacy since it may not feel good but is often necessary, leading the recipients to face approach-avoidance tension and preferring patterns of social distancing from the providers of the intimacy (Schroeder, Fishbach, Schein, & Gray, 2017).
It is also important to note that there are other types of intimacy besides romantic, imposed, and functional intimacy which includes emotional, intellectual, and spiritual intimate relations. In addition, there is intimacy related to crisis and conflict where the individual’s gain closeness due to facing and struggling with differences and coping with problems and pain. When referring to a long-duration mission in the complex environment of space, understanding the role of intimacy in its different forms among the crewmembers is crucial for their wellbeing, as well as efficient and safe operations.
Intimacy in Space
As expected, certain standard requirements exist for space travelers, although unofficially codified, and include age, standing height, visual acuity, and blood pressure. As Comins (2017) thoroughly describes, several human conditions will prevent someone from going to space, including individuals with certain social disorders and medical problems (i.e., heart conditions, uncorrectable hearing and vision problems, blood disorders, respiratory and digestive problems, metabolic diseases, and pregnancy). Considering the diversity of the human species, a variety of screening processes for astronauts have been developed and consists of a variety of physical and psychological tests. A professional astronaut is normally required to undergo two to three years of training to qualify for spaceflight, depending on their role in the mission and previous experience (Comins, 2017). As Comins (2017) notes, the basic training in preparation for any spaceflight will begin with classroom and book learning about what will be experienced and is followed by hands-on training for those elements that can be simulated before departure, including what it feels like to undergo extreme acceleration, microgravity, low air pressure, and space suit use. Participating in innumerable simulations of virtually every aspect of the spaceflight experience for the most complete understanding of what to expect and how to respond to a myriad of situations is crucial for the preparedness of the crewmembers (Comins, 2017). This includes not only the physical rigors of spaceflight but also the psychosocial aspects such as mental health, getting along with your companions, making the most of the time and opportunities presented, and more. As Noonan (1998) outlines best, astronauts on any mission need to develop a similar synergism with their colleagues over the extended time in which they train for the mission, many times up to two years or more, to understand and learn to cope with each individual’s personality and to develop the skills and team cohesion necessary for a successful mission. Despite this, as Rodin (2020) mentions, group heterogeneous composition and power asymmetry are among the few spaceflight stressors that still need to be continually addressed.
Aside from the necessity of preflight training and testing, it is not always efficient for ensuring a healthy or happy existence in space. To better understand these harsh conditions and their effects on human wellbeing, researchers look at past evidence and experiences while also studying people in high-stress, high-performance, and often isolated and extreme environments such as submarines, cave explorations, Antarctica, and military aviation (Comins, 2017). In terms of psychosocial behavior and characteristics that are most essential for participating in long-duration spaceflight, findings indicate that the astronauts rated most effective displayed high positive expressivity and instrumentality, while astronauts with higher levels of expressive traits were also rated higher by their peers on interpersonal and team performance (Goel et al., 2014). Emotional stability is also a crucial trait, being among the characteristics of successful adaptation and esteemed leadership in previous studies of isolated and confined personnel (Goel et al., 2014).
Despite these positive attributes, early anecdotal and debriefing reports indicating that some space-faring cultures have lower expectations and hold negative stereotypes about the role and abilities of women (Goel et al., 2014). This makes it much more difficult to achieve a multinational and multi-sex crew that functions and will behave appropriately during a long-duration mission. In fact, there was a publicized incident about an international space simulation study involving a male and a female participant where the two came from significantly different cultural backgrounds, and when the man initiated an unwanted intimate advance, it distressed the woman and disrupted the simulation (Goel et al., 2014). As Goel et al. (2014) note, this event illustrated the potential culturally influenced differences in expectations regarding appropriate interpersonal relations during periods of extended isolation and confinement. Findings also suggest that women have a somewhat more difficult interpersonal experience than men in polar workgroups, which may impact work performance, while another study of Australian expeditioners found that men scored higher than women on measures on task performance (Goel et al., 2014). In the face of this scrutiny, many other studies indicate women have better resilience in the face of adversity and revealed that women were significantly more likely to receive a rating of good adaptation, work performance, psychological functioning, and social adaptability by their station commanders (Goel et al., 2014). A different study undertaken in Antarctic workgroups found that the inclusion of women had an extremely positive effect on group climate, although there was a noticeable increase in sexual tensions (Goel et al., 2014). Despite these worries, the embodied feeling of danger adds an existential dimension to the aloofness of the humans’ daily operation during long-duration spaceflight and due to the harsh conditions, a normal continuity of individual existence is now associated with collective efforts and mutual support (Rodin, 2020). This strengthened crew solidarity has been found to manifest itself in various ways including shared judgments and commitments, as well as in readiness for self-sacrifice. However, it has been noted that many of the past crewmembers provided ego support for others during the mission while simultaneously trying to avoid contamination by their destructive affective conditions, leading to gained avoidant behaviors and the desire to social distance (Rodin, 2020).
Therefore, in this context, instilling healthy and appropriate levels of intimacy is essential for the wellbeing and continued performance of astronauts on long-duration spaceflights. Although the non-physical aspects of being intimate such as teamwork, sharing, and openness are encouraged between crew members in space, having physical or romantic relationships is still quite a taboo topic. Despite the few speculations, there has been no confirmation that this type of intimacy has occurred. In fact, NASA and other space agencies do not engage in inquiries regarding the intimacy of their crewmembers, noting that there is no official interest in the astronaut’s private lives, and both the lack of privacy and professionalism would preclude such intimacies. In terms of colonization, the ability to have such intimacies and reproduction is crucial, which makes NASA’s reluctance to talk about sex in space seem somewhat puzzling. Many speculate that this is due to the current research and technological endeavors being undertaken and that reproduction is highly uncertain in the current space conditions with great fears about its physiological and social consequences (Noonan, 1998). Despite this, it is assumed that astronauts are generally all healthy and normal individuals where intimate sexual relationships could quite possibly form within both same-sex or mixed-sex crews. The highly disciplined nature of the astronaut’s training may be enough to suppress sexual wants and desires for long periods for the far-away, overall goal of the mission, but does not extinguish it, which it indeed should not and cannot (Noonan, 1998). In support of this, as Noonan (1998) noted, there is evidence that higher levels of intelligence and education, which are characteristics selected for in astronauts, increase the likelihood that certain sexual behaviors will be experienced.
The Future of Intimate Relations in Space
There are many suggestions made to support these bonds and promote a healthy and appropriate level of intimacy among crewmembers for long-duration spaceflight missions. In such contexts, there needs to be a consideration of such items as privacy, timing, and circumstance of the disclosure (Noonan, 1998), as well as the overall mental health of the participants and their ability to connect with one another. The aspects of confinement and shortage of privacy in a space capsule, as Rodin (2020) notes, create a particular regime of proximity and exposure that may lead to specific psychosocial effects, making intimacy much more dynamic and built on a mixture of alienation and solidarity. In the context of long-duration spaceflight, the sense of intimacy among crewmembers has been found to fluctuate from close solidarity in the moments of crisis to light alienation when the conditions pass over (Rodin, 2020). Real-time mental health care support, as Comins (2017) notes best, is necessary for the assurance of astronaut wellbeing and promotion of positive intimacy, and because of the profound complexity of human interactions, there must be at least one highly trained person on board working with individuals, couples, and teams on personal and group issues. Ideally, the ship’s crew will include a psychologist or physician trained in diagnosing mental illnesses, counseling, and dispensing medications that could alleviate symptoms and help promote mental wellness (Comins, 2017).
As Comins (2017) also noted, it will be far more likely that the trip will be an overall positive experience with a greater number of people involved. Groups can provide people with a sense of security, belonging, and importance; however, healthy, cooperative, supportive, trusting, cohesive groups do not usually just happen, and instead, people work at developing these traits and bonds with one another (Comins, 2017). Despite the environmental or situational context, healthy and positive social relationships require that the individuals involved identify with and understand each other rather than misunderstand or reject each other (Rodin, 2020). As Rodin (2020) outlines, having secure social ties ensure reliable conduct and a feeling of pride among all participating members, while a lack of connection or intimacy can potentially lead to altered behavior and a feeling of shame. Inspiring this healthy and appropriate level of intimacy among crewmembers can begin with the habitat design and the consideration of privacy and both the environmental and technological aspects that contribute to the wellbeing of all participants. Adding an artificially intelligent machine to the mix of crewmembers on a long-duration spaceflight focused on promoting healthy intimate relations may also prove to be a useful and cost-effective avenue for establishing these bonds and ensuring the wellbeing of astronauts on these missions.
Complications and Limitations
Regardless of the need to establish healthy and appropriate intimate relations among crewmembers on long-duration space flights, there are numerous complications and limitations to consider. As Noonan (1998) notes, romantic bonds of any kind can be potentially disruptive to spaceflight endeavors because jealousies may arise due to other crew members pairing off. In addition, a terminated intimate relationship that proves merely painful under normal conditions could prove devastating under conditions of isolation and confinement experienced in space (Noonan, 1998), with the result of this devastation having the potential of leading to decreases in efficiency and performance. Furthermore, if individuals in this isolated group disconnect into cliques, negative dynamics and behaviors can occur, such as great tension, excessive competitiveness, anger, frustration, bullying, violence, and various mental health issues (Comins, 2017). The potential for negative interactions and group dynamics to occur in this isolated and complex context could not only prove debilitating and dangerous for the crew members but also for the success of the mission.
Conclusion
As demonstrated, the most vital elements of a successful long-duration spaceflight are the behavioral health of the crew members and positive group dynamics. Nevertheless, there is still a great need to investigate and further develop these group dynamics and intimate relations for crewmembers on spaceflights of longer duration. Not only is more research needed for optimizing the behavioral health of women and men in spaceflight to ensure their wellbeing and performance, but there is also room for more insight into successful missions of longer durations and the role of technology in these operations (Goel et al., 2014). When referring to physical intimacies, the act of procreation and colonization also needs to be heavily researched and considered for long-duration missions. As Comins (2017) further summarizes, a few of the most important factors to consider regarding intimacy during long-duration spaceflight include privacy, crowding, territoriality, boredom, withdrawal, grief, leadership, and individual differences. Although there is currently little research into these topics, establishing healthy and appropriate intimacy throughout these groups is essential for successful space missions of longer duration.
References
Comins, N. F. (2017). The traveler’s guide to space: For one-way settlers and round-trip tourists. Columbia University Press.
Goel, N., Bale, T. L., Epperson, C. N., Kornstein, S. G., Leon, G. R., Palinkas, L. A., … & Dinges, D. F. (2014). Effects of sex and gender on adaptation to space: behavioral health. Journal of Women’s Health, 23(11), 975-986. http://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4911
Noonan, R. J. (1998). A philosophical inquiry into the role of sexology in space life sciences research and human factors: Considerations for extended spaceflight
Rodin, L. (2020) Living and Surviving with Enemies: The Dynamics of Intimacy in Long-Duration Multinational Outer Space Missions. International Journal of Russian Studies, 9(1).
Schroeder, J., Fishbach, A., Schein, C., & Gray, K. (2017). Functional intimacy: Needing-but not wanting-the touch of a stranger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(6), 910-924. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000104
Originally created by Samantha Colangelo to fulfill requirements for Embry Riddle Aeronautical University’s Master of Science program in Human Factors. July, 2021.
Samantha Colangelo 